پیشنهادی ▓▓Proprietary english▓▓

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Unknown languages
Thousands of different languages exist worldwide. Linguists estimate that there are 6,000 to 7,000. However, the exact number is still unknown today. This is because there are still many undiscovered languages. These languages are mostly spoken in remote regions. One example of such a region is the Amazon. There are still many people living in isolation there. They have no contact with other cultures. Despite this, they all have their own language, of course. There are still unidentified languages in other parts of the world as well. We still do not know how many languages there are in Central Africa. New Guinea hasn't been thoroughly researched from a linguistic standpoint either. Whenever a new language is discovered, it's always a sensation. About two years ago scientists discovered Koro. Koro is spoken in the small villages of northern India. Only about 1,000 people speak this language. It is only spoken. Koro doesn't exist in written form. Researchers are puzzled by how Koro has survived for so long. Koro belongs to the Tibeto-Burmese language family. There are about 300 of these languages in all of Asia. But Koro isn't closely related to any of these languages. That means that it must have a history all its own. Unfortunately, minor languages die out quickly. Occasionally a language disappears within a single generation. As a result, researchers often only have a little time to study them. But there is a little hope for Koro. It is to be documented in an audio dictionary...

 

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Minority languages in Europe
Many different languages are spoken in Europe. Most of them are Indo-European languages. In addition to the large national languages, there are also many smaller languages. They are minority languages. Minority languages are different from official languages. But they aren't dialects. They aren't the languages of immigrants either. Minority languages are always ethnically driven. Meaning, they are the languages of particular ethnic groups. There are minority languages in almost every country of Europe. That amounts to about 40 languages in the European Union. Some minority languages are only spoken in one country. Among them for example is Sorbian in Germany. Romani, on the other hand, has speakers in many European countries. Minority languages have a special status. Because they are only spoken by a relatively small group. These groups cannot afford to build their own schools. It is also difficult for them to publish their own literature. As a result, many minority languages are threatened by extinction. The European Union wants to protect minority languages. Because every language is an important part of a culture or identity. Some nations do not have a commonwealth and only exist as a minority. Various programs and projects are meant to promote their languages. It is hoped that the culture of smaller ethnic groups will be preserved as well. Nevertheless, some minority languages will disappear soon. Among them is Livonian, spoken in a province of Latvia. Only 20 people remain as native speakers of Livonian. This makes Livonian the smallest language in Europe.

 

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Women are more linguistically gifted than men!
Women are just as intelligent as men. On average they both have the same intelligence quotient. However, the gender competencies differ. For example, men think better three-dimensionally. They also solve mathematical problems better. Women, on the other hand, have a better memory. And they master languages better. Women make fewer mistakes in spelling and grammar. They also have a larger vocabulary and read more fluently. Therefore, they typically achieve better results in language tests. The reason for women's linguistic edge lies in the brain. The male and female brain is organized differently. The left half of the brain is responsible for language. This region controls linguistic processes. Despite this, women use both halves of the brain when processing speech. Furthermore, the two halves of their brain can exchange ideas better. So the female brain is more active in speech processing. And women can process speech more efficiently. How the brains differ is still unknown. Some scientists believe that biology is the reason for it. Female and male genes influence brain development. Women and men are also the way they are because of hormones. Others say that our upbringing influences our development. Because female babies are spoken and read to more. Young boys, on the other hand, receive more technical toys. So it could be that our environment shapes our brain. On the other hand, certain differences exist worldwide. And children are raised differently in every culture…

 

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Changing language = Changing personality
Our language belongs to us. It's an important part of our personality. But many people speak multiple languages. Does that mean they have multiple personalities? Researchers believe: yes! When we change languages, we also change our personality. That is to say, we behave differently. American scientists have come to this conclusion. They studied the behavior of bi-lingual women. These women grew up with English and Spanish. They were equally familiar with both languages and cultures. Despite this, their behavior was dependent on the language. When they spoke Spanish the women were more confident. They were also comfortable when people around them were speaking Spanish. Then, when they spoke English, their behavior changed. They were less confident and often unsure of themselves. The researchers noticed that the women also appeared more solitary. So the language we speak influences our behavior. Researchers don't yet know why this is. Perhaps we are guided by cultural norms. When speaking, we think about the culture from which the language comes. This is done automatically. Therefore, we try to adapt to the culture. We behave in a way that is customary for that culture. Chinese speakers were very reserved in experiments. Then when they spoke English, they were more open. Perhaps we change our behavior in order to integrate better. We want to be like those, with whom we're speaking…

 

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Who understands whom?
There are about 7 billion people in the world. They all have a language. Unfortunately, it's not always the same. So in order to speak with other nations, we must learn languages. That is often very arduous. But there are languages that are very similar. Their speakers understand one another, without mastering the other language. This phenomenon is called mutual intelligibility. Whereby two variants are distinguished. The first variant is oral mutual intelligibility. Here, the speakers understand each other when they talk. They do not understand the written form of the other language, however. This is because the languages have different written forms. Examples of this are the languages Hindi and Urdu. Written mutual intelligibility is the second variant. In this case, the other language is understood in its written form. But the speakers do not understand each other when they speak to each other. The reason for this is that they have very different pronunciation. German and Dutch are examples of this. The most closely related languages contain both variants. Meaning they are mutually intelligible both orally and in written form. Russian and Ukrainian or Thai and Laotian are examples. But there is also an asymmetrical form of mutual intelligibility. That is the case when speakers have different levels of understanding each other. Portuguese understand Spanish better than the Spanish understand Portuguese. Austrians also understand Germans better than the other way around. In these examples, pronunciation or dialect is a hindrance. He who really wants to have good conversations must learn something new…

 

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Memory needs speech
Most people remember their first day of school. However, they no longer recall that which came before. We have almost no memory of our first years of life. But why is that? Why can't we remember the experiences we had as a baby? The reason lies in our development. Speech and memory develop at about the same time. And in order to remember something, a person needs speech. That is, he must have words for that which he experiences. Scientists have conducted various tests with children. In doing so, they made an interesting discovery. As soon as children learn to speak, they forget everything that came before. The beginning of speech is therefore also the beginning of memory. Children learn a great deal in the first three years of their lives. They experience new things every day. They also have many important experiences at this age. Despite this, it all disappears. Psychologists refer to this phenomenon as infantile amnesia. Only the things that children can name remain. The autobiographical memory retains personal experiences. It functions like a journal. Everything that is important in our life is recorded in it. In this way, the autobiographical memory forms our identity. But its development is dependent upon the learning of the native language. And we can only activate our memory through our speech. The things that we learn as a baby are not really gone, of course. They are stored somewhere in our brain. We just can't access them anymore… – that's a shame, isn't it?

 

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Secret Languages
With languages, we aim to express what we think and feel. So understanding is the most important purpose of a language. But sometimes people don't want to be understood by everyone. In this case, they invent secret languages. Secret languages have fascinated people for thousands of years. Julius Caesar had his own secret language, for example. He sent coded messages to all areas of his empire. His enemies couldn't read the coded news. Secret languages are protected communication. We differentiate ourselves from others through secret languages. We show that we belong to an exclusive group. There are different reasons why we use secret languages. Lovers write coded letters at all times. Certain professional groups have their own languages as well. So there are languages for magicians, thieves and business people. But secret languages are most often used for political purposes. Secret languages have been used in almost every war. The military and intelligence services have their own experts for secret languages. Cryptology is the science of encoding. Modern codes are based on complicated mathematical formulas. But they are very difficult to decode. Without encoded languages, our life would be unthinkable. Encrypted data is used everywhere today. Credit cards and Emails – everything functions with codes. Children find secret languages especially exciting. They love to exchange secret messages with their friends. Secret languages are even useful for the development of children… They promote creativity and a feeling for language!

 

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Long words, short words
The length of a word is dependent upon its informative content. This has been shown by an American study. Researchers evaluated words from ten European languages. This was achieved with the help of a computer. The computer analyzed various words with a program. In the process, it used a formula to calculate the informative content. The results were clear. The shorter a word is, the less information it conveys. Interestingly, we use short words more often than long words. The reason for this could lie in the efficiency of speech. When we speak, we concentrate on the most important thing. Therefore, words without much information mustn't be too long. This guarantees we don't spend too much time on unimportant things. The correlation between length and content has another advantage. It ensures that the informative content always remains the same. That is to say, we always say the same amount in a certain period of time. For example, we can use a few long words. But we can also use many short words. It doesn't matter what we decide: The informative content remains the same. As a result, our speech has a consistent rhythm. This makes it easier for listeners to follow us. If the amount of information were always varied, it would be difficult. Our listeners couldn't adapt well to our speech. Comprehension would thus be made difficult. He who wants the best chance of being understood should use short words. Since short words are better comprehended than long ones. Therefore, the principle goes: Keep It Short and Simple! In short: KISS!

 

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The language of our ancestors
Modern languages can be analyzed by linguists. Various methods are used to do so. But how did people speak thousands of years ago? It is much more difficult to answer this question. Despite this, scientists have been busy researching for years. They would like to explore how people spoke earlier. In order to do this, they attempt to reconstruct ancient speech forms. American scientists have now made an exciting discovery. They analyzed more than 2,000 languages. In particular they analyzed the sentence structure of the languages. The results of their study were very interesting. About half of the languages had the S-O-V sentence structure. That is to say, the sentences are ordered by subject, object and verb. More than 700 languages follow the pattern S-V-O. And about 160 languages operate according to the V-S-O system. Only about 40 languages use the V-O-S pattern. 120 languages display a hybrid. On the other hand, O-V-S and O-S-V are distinctly rarer systems. The majority of the analyzed languages use the S-O-V principle. Persian, Japanese and Turkish are some examples. Most living languages follow the S-V-O pattern, however. This sentence structure dominates the Indo-European language family today. Researchers believe that the S-O-V model was used earlier. All languages are based on this system. But then the languages diverged. We don't yet know how that happened. However, the variation of sentence structures must have had a reason. Because in evolution, only that which has an advantage prevails…

 

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Feelings speak different languages too!
Many different languages are spoken around the world. There is no universal human language. But how is it for our facial expressions? Is the language of emotions universal? No, there are also differences here! It was long believed that all people expressed feelings the same way. The language of facial expressions was considered universally understood. Charles Darwin believed that feelings were of vital importance for humans. Therefore, they had to be understood equally in all cultures. But new studies are coming to a different result. They show that there are differences in the language of feelings too. That is, our facial expressions are influenced by our culture. Therefore, people around the world show and interpret feelings differently. Scientists distinguish six primary emotions. They are happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, fear and surprise. But Europeans have different facial expressions to Asians. And they read different things from the same expressions. Various experiments have confirmed this. In them, test subjects were shown faces on a computer. The subjects were supposed to describe what they read in the faces. There are many reasons why the results differed. Feelings are shown more in some cultures than in others. The intensity of facial expressions is therefore not understood the same everywhere. Also, people from different cultures pay attention to different things. Asians concentrate on the eyes when reading facial expressions. Europeans and Americans, on the other hand, look at the mouth. One facial expression is understood in all cultures, however… That is a nice smile!